Micromanufacturing and Nanotechnology

Preface

Contents

Authors

1 Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Introduction

1.2.1 Precision Engineering

1.2.2 Micromilling and Microdrilling

1.3 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

1.3.1 An Example: Microphenomenon in Electrophotography

1.4 Microelectronics Fabrication Methods

1.4.1 Bulk Micromachining

1.4.2 Surface Micromachining

1.5 Microinstrumentation

1.6 Micromechatronics

1.7 Nanofinishing

1.8 Optically Variable Device

1.9 MECS

1.10 Space Micropropulsion

1.11 e-Beam Nanolithography

1.12 Nanotechnology

1.13 Carbon Nanotubes and Structures

1.14 Molecular Logic Gates

1.15 Microdevices as Nanolevel Biosensors

1.16 Crosslinking in C60 and Derivatisation

1.17 Fuel Cell

1.18 References

2 Principles of MEMS and MOEMS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Driving Principles for Actuation

2.3 Fabrication Process

2.4 Mechanical MEMS

2.4.1 Mechanical sensors

2.4.2 Accelerometer, Cantilever and Capacitive Measurement

2.4.3 Microphone

2.4.4 Gyroscope

2.4.5 Mechanical Actuators

2.5 Thermal MEMS

2.5.1 Thermometry

2.5.2 Data Storage Applications

2.5.3 Microhotplate Gas Sensors

2.5.4 Thermoactuators

2.6 Magnetic MEMS

2.7 MOEMS

2.8 Spatial Light Modulator

2.9 Digital Micromirror Device

2.10 Grating Light Valve (GLV)

2.11 References

3 Laser Technology in Micromanufacturing

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Generation of Laser Light

3.3 Properties of Laser Light

3.3.1 Monochromacity

3.3.2 Directionality

3.3.3 Brightness

3.3.4 Coherence

3.3.5 Spatial Profile

3.3.6 Temporal Profile

3.4 Practical Lasers

3.5 Laser Technology in Micromanufacturing

3.5.1 Background

3.5.2 Absorption and Reflection of Laser Light

3.5.3 Application Technology Fundamentals

3.6 References

4 Soft Geometrical Error Compensation Methods Using Laser Interferometer

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Overview of Geometrical Error Calibration

4.2.1 Error Measurement System

4.2.2 Accuracy Assessment

4.3 Geometrical Error Compensation Schemes

4.3.1 Look-up Table for Geometrical Errors

4.3.2 Parametric Model for Geometrical Errors

4.4 Experimental Results

4.4.1 Error Approximations

4.4.2 Linear Errors

4.4.3 Straightness Errors

4.4.4 Angular Errors

4.4.5 Squareness Error

4.4.2 Assessment

4.5 Conclusions

4.6 Reference

5 Characterising Etching Processes in Bulk Micromachining

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Wet Bulk Micromachining (WBM)

5.3 Review

5.4 Crystallography and its Effects

5.4.1 An Example

5.5 Silicon as Substrate and Structural Material

5.5.1 Silicon as a Substrate

5.5.2 Silicon as Structural Material

5.5.3 Stress and Strain

5.5.4 Thermal Properties of Silicon

5.6 Wet Etching Process

5.6.1 Isotropic Etchants

5.6.2 Reaction Phenomena

5.6.3 Isotropic Etch Curves

5.6.4 Masking

5.6.5 DD Etchants

5.7 Anisotropic Etching

5.7.1 Anisotropic Etchants

5.7.2 Masking for Anisotropic Etchants

5.8 Etching Control: The Etch-stop

5.8.1 Boron Diffusion Etch-stop

5.8.2 Electrochemical Etch-stop

5.8.3 Thin Films and SOI Etch-stop

5.9 Problems with Etching in Bulk Micromachining

5.9.1 RE Consumption

5.9.2 Corner Compensation

5.10 Conclusions

5.11 References

6 Features of Surface Micromachining and Wafer Bonding Process

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Photolithography

6.3 Surface Micromachining

6.3.1 Bulk versus Surface Micromachining

6.4 Characterising the Surface Micromachining Process

6.4.1 Isolation Layer

6.4.2 Sacrificial Layer

6.4.3 Structural Material

6.4.4 Selective Etching

6.5 Properties

6.5.1 Adhesion

6.5.2 Stress

6.5.3 Stiction

6.6 Wafer Bonding

6.6.1 Anodic Bonding

6.6.2 Fusion Bonding

6.7 Summary

6.8 References

7 Micromanufacturing for Document Security: Optically Variable Devices

7.1 Preamble

7.2 Introduction

7.3 OVD Foil Microstructures

7.3.1 The Security Hologram

7.3.2 The Kinegram

7.3.3 The Catpix Electron Beam Lithography Microstructure

7.3.4 Structural Stability

7.3.5 The Pixelgram Palette Concept

7.3.6 The Exelgram Track based OVD Microstructure

7.3.7 Covert Image Micrographic Security Features

7.3.8 Kinegram and Exelgram: Comparison

7.3.9 Vectorgram Image Multiplexing

7.3.10 Interstitial Groove Element Modulation

7.4 Generic OVD Microstructures

7.4.1 Optically Variable Ink Technology

7.4.2 Diffractive Data Foils

7.4.3 Biometric OVD Technology

7.5 NanoCODES

7.5.1 The Micromirror OVD

7.5.2 Origination of a Micromirror OVD

7.5.3 Summary of Micromirror OVD Optical Effects

7.6 Conclusions

7.7 References

8 Nanofinishing Techniques

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Traditional Finishing Processes

8.2.1 Grinding

8.2.2 Lapping

8.2.3 Honing

8.3 Advanced Finishing Processes (AFPs)

8.3.1 Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)

8.3.2 Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF)

8.3.3 Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF)

8.3.4 Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)

8.3.5 Magnetic Float Polishing (MFP)

8.3.6 Elastic Emission Machining (EEM)

8.3.7 Ion Beam Machining (IBM)

8.3.8 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)

8.4 References

9 Micro and Nanotechnology Applications for Space Micropropulsion

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Subsystems and Devices for Miniaturised Spacecrafts Micropropulsion

9.3 Propulsion Systems

9.3.1 Solid Propellant

9.3.2 Cold-Gas

9.3.3 Colloid Thrusters

9.3.4 Warm-Gas

9.3.5 Monopropellant and Bipropellant Systems

9.3.6 Regenerative-Pressurisation Cycles

9.3.7 ADCS

9.4 Realisation of a Cold-Gas Microthruster

9.4.1 Gas- and Fluid Dynamics

9.4.2 Prototyping

9.5 Conclusions

9.6 References

10 Carbon Nanotube Production and Applications: Basis of Nanotechnology

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Nanotechnology and Carbon Nanotube Promises

10.3 Growing Interest in Carbon Nanotube

10.4 Structure and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes

10.5 Production of Carbon Nanotube

10.5.1 Chemical Vapour Deposition

10.5.2 Arc Discharge

10.5.3 Laser Ablation

10.5.4 Mechanisms of Growth

10.5.5 Purification of Carbon Nanotube

10.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes

10.6.1 Electrical Transport of Carbon Nanotubes for FET

10.6.2 Computers

10.6.3 CNT Nanodevices for Biomedical Application

10.6.4 X-Ray Equipment

10.6.5 CNTs for Nanomechanic Actuator and Artificial Muscles

10.6.6 Fuel Cells

10.6.7 Membrane Electrode Assembly

10.6.8 Mechanical and Electrical Reinforcement of Bipolar Plates with CNTs

10.6.9 Hydrogen Storage in CNTs

10.7 References

11 Carbon based Nanostructures

11.1 Introduction

11.2 History of Fullerenes

11.3 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

11.3.1 Y-shaped

11.3.2 Double Helical

11.3.3 Bamboo-like Structure

11.3.4 Hierarchical Morphology Structure

11.3.5 Ring Structured MWCNTs

11.3.6 Cone Shape End Caps of MWCNTs

11.4 Structure of Fullerenes

11.4.1 Structure of C48 Fullerenes

11.4.2 Toroidal Fullerenes

11.4.3 Structure of C60, C59, C58, C57

11.4.4 The Smaller Fullerene C50

11.5 Structure of Carbon Nanoballs (CNBs)

11.6 Structure of Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs)

11.6.1 Hexagonal CNFs

11.6.2 Corn-shaped CNFs

11.6.3 Helical CNFs

11.7 Porous Carbon

11.8 Properties of Carbon Nanostructures

11.8.1 Molecular Properties

11.8.2 Electronic Properties

11.8.3 Optical Properties

11.8.4 Mechanical Properties

11.8.5 Periodic Properties

11.9 Synthesis

11.9.1 Carbon Nanotubes

11.9.2 Fullerenes

11.9.3 Nanoballs

11.9.4 Nanofibers

11.10 Potential Applications of Nanostructures

11.10.1 Energy Storage

11.10.2 Hydrogen Storage

11.10.3 Lithium Intercalation

11.10.4 Electrochemical Supercapacitors

11.10.5 Molecular Electronics with CNTs

11.11 Composite Materials

11.12 Summary

11.13 References

12 Molecular Logic Gates

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Logic Gates

12.3 Fluorescence based Molecular Logic Gates

12.4 Combinational Logic Circuits

12.5 Reconfigurable Molecular Logic

12.6 Absorption based Molecular Logic Gates

12.7 Molecular Logic Gates: Electronic Conductance

12.8 Conclusions

12.9 References

13 Nanomechanical Cantilever Devices for Biological Sensors

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Principles

13.3 Static Deformation Approach

13.4 Resonance Mode Approach

13.5 Heat Detection Approach

13.6 Microfabrication

13.6.1 Si-based Cantilever

13.6.2 Piezoresistive Integrated Cantilever

13.6.3 Piezoelectric Integrated Cantilever

13.7 Measurement and Readout Technique

13.7.1 Optical Method

13.7.2 Interferometry

13.7.3 Piezoresistive Method

13.7.4 Capacitance Method

13.7.5 Piezoelectric Method

13.8 Biological Sensing

13.8.1 DNA Detection

13.8.2 Protein Detection

13.8.3 Cell Detection

13.9 Conclusions

13.10 References

14 Micro Energy and Chemical Systems (MECS) and Multiscale Fabrication

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Micro Energy and Chemical Systems

14.2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer in MECS Devices

14.2.2 Applications of MECS Technology

14.3 MECS Fabrication

14.3.1 Challenges

14.3.2 Feature Sizes

14.3.3 Microlamination

14.4 Dimensional Control in Microlamination

14.4.1 Effects of Patterning on Microchannel Array Performance

14.4.2 Theory

14.4.3 Microchannel Fabrication

14.4.4 Results

14.5 Sources of Warpage in Microchannel Arrays

14.5.1 Analysis

14.5.2 Results

14.6 Effects of Registration and Bonding on Microchannel Array Performance

14.7 Geometrical Constraints in Microchannel Arrays

14.8 Economics of Microlamination

14.9 References

15 Sculptured Thin Films

15.1 Introduction

15.2 STF Growth

15.2.1 Experimental and Phenomenological

15.2.2 Computer Modeling

15. 3 Optical Properties

15.3.1 Theory

15.3.2 Characteristic Behavior

15.4 Applications

15.4.1 Optical

15.4.2 Chemical

15.4.3 Electronics

15.4.4 Biological

15.5 Concluding Remarks

15.6 References

16 e-Beam Nanolithography Integrated with Nanoassembly: Precision Chemical Engineering

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Electron-Beam Radiation

16.2.1 Polymeric Materials

16.2.2 Molecular Materials

16.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers

16.4 Summary and Outlook

16.5 References

17 Nanolithography in the Evanescent Near Field

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Historical Development

17.3 Principles of ENFOL

17.4 Mask Requirements and Fabrication

17.5 Pattern Definition

17.5.1 Exposure Conditions

17.5.2 Resist Requirements

the Diffraction Limit

17.6. Pattern Transfer

17.6.1 Subtractive Pattern Transfer

17.6.2 Additive Pattern Transfer

17.7 Simulations

17.7.1 Simulation Methods and Models

17.7.2 Intensity Distribution

17.7.3 Depth of Field (DOF)

17.7.4 Exposure Variations due to Edge Enhancements

17.8 Nanolithography using Surface Plasmons

17.8.1 Evanescent Interferometric Lithography (EIL)

17.8.2 Planar Lens Lithography (PLL)

17.8.3 Surface Plasmon Enhanced Contact Lithography (SPECL)

17.9 Conclusions

17.10 References

18 Nanotechnology for Fuel Cell Applications

18.1 Current State of the Knowledge and Needs

18.2 Nanoparticles in Heterogeneous Catalysis

18.3 Oxygen Electroreduction Reaction on Carbon-Supported Platinum Catalysts

18.4 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalyst Supports

18.5 Concluding Remarks

18.6 References

19 Derivatisation of Carbon Nanotubes with Amines: A Solvent-free Technique

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Experimental Design

19.3 Direct Amidation of Carboxylic Functionalities on Oxidised SWNT Tips

19.4 Direct Amine Addition to Closed Caps and Wall Defects of Pristine MWNTs

19.5 Conclusions

19.6 References

20 Chemical Crosslinking in C60 Thin Films

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Experiment

20.2.1 Analytical Instruments

20.2.2 Deposition of Fullerene Films

20.2.3 Reaction with 1,8-Diaminooctane

20.3 Results and Discussion

20.3.1 (1,8)-Diaminooctane-derivatised C60 Powder

20.3.2 1,8-Diaminooctane-derivatised C60 Films

Index